Abstract: This chapter provides a comprehensive framework for understanding Chile's transition from a model of political and economic stability to a case study of social upheaval, institutional crisis, and failed constitutional reform. It introduces the central narrative of the book, beginning with the October 2019 protests and the subsequent constitutional process, which culminated in the rejection of two proposed constitutions—one in September 2022 and another in December 2023. By situating Chile’s experience within a broader theoretical and comparative context, the chapter highlights its significance for analyzing the challenges of pursuing systemic reform under unstable conditions. The book’s core thesis contends that Chile’s crisis did not originate from inherent flaws in its economic model or institutional framework. Instead, it arose from the fragmentation of its party system, the erosion of voter–party linkages, and the rupturist rhetoric advanced by an elite willing to do whatever it took to gain power. The chapter also advances the idea that ideological overreach and the failure to appeal to the median voter contributed to the collapse of the greater constitutional process. Finally, the chapter outlines the structure of the book, detailing its theoretical foundations, its guiding questions, and a summary of each of the subsequent chapters, explaining their purpose, their respective contributions, and their place in the overarching theory.

Keywords: Chile; Political Crisis; Social Protests; Neoliberalism; Social Outburst; Constitutional Reform.

Abstract: This chapter examines the origins, design, and long-term impact of Chile’s 1980 Constitution, drafted under Augusto Pinochet’s military regime in the aftermath of the 1973 coup. It argues that the document was shaped by political priorities aimed at ensuring system stability through a “protected democracy” and economic objectives rooted in neoliberal principles. By concentrating power in the executive while limiting the authority of Congress, the Constitution formalized military oversight as a safeguard against instability and fragmentation. Simultaneously, it institutionalized a subsidiary role for the state, prioritizing privatization, deregulation, and protections for private property, diverging sharply from the 1925 Constitution. While achieving stability and economic continuity, the constitution’s authoritarian origin and rigid framework became enduring sources of tension. Critics largely bypassed debates about its substantive content or performance and instead focused on two fundamental flaws: its lack of democratic legitimacy and its procedural rigidity, which, they argued, rendered it incapable of representing or adapting to societal needs. These critiques laid the groundwork for the constitutional process, illustrating how institutions, regardless of their achievements, remain tied to their origins and become focal points of scrutiny when they fail to evolve.

Keywords: Chile; Constitutional Engineering; Authoritarian Design; Neoliberal Framework; Institutional Rigidity; Democratic Legitimacy; Constitutional Law.

Abstract: This chapter provides a working definition of neoliberalism and examines its foundational role in shaping Chile’s economic reforms under the Pinochet regime. Neoliberalism, as implemented by the Chicago Boys, is presented as an extreme form of capitalism characterized by privatization, deregulation, and limited state intervention. The chapter explores how these principles transformed traditional public sectors such as pensions, healthcare, and education, establishing a model that marked a decisive shift from the previous state-led approach. While these reforms delivered macroeconomic stability and institutional endurance, they also generated widespread debate over equity, access, and long-term outcomes. By examining growing public dissatisfaction and attempts at reform, the chapter highlights the contested nature of neoliberalism’s legacy in Chile. Rather than offering a definitive verdict, it emphasizes the complexity of evaluating the model’s impact, noting both its adaptability and the persistent questions surrounding its role in shaping social policy. This perspective invites further reflection on how market-driven systems evolve in response to pressure and what that evolution reveals about the broader tensions between macroeconomic efficiency, and democratic legitimacy.

Keywords: Chile; Chicago Boys; Washington Consensus; Market Liberalization; Privatization; Neoliberalism.

Abstract: This chapter examines Chile’s transition to democracy, emphasizing the persistence and evolution of the 1980 Constitution’s political and economic framework. Rather than dismantling the neoliberal model inherited from the Pinochet regime, successive Concertación governments—led by Patricio Aylwin, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, Ricardo Lagos, and Michelle Bachelet—consolidated and expanded it. The chapter highlights their shared achievements: Aylwin prioritized political stability and human rights; Frei Ruiz-Tagle oversaw economic growth and regional leadership; Lagos enacted constitutional reforms and modernization measures; and Bachelet emphasized social inclusivity. This period fostered political stability, poverty reduction, and international economic integration, affirming the system’s short-term success. However, by the late 2000s, structural limitations and internal political fractures within the coalition signaled growing fatigue. Critiques from the left and rising public frustration laid the groundwork for questioning the 1980 Constitution’s legitimacy. The victory of Sebastián Piñera and the conservative Alianza coalition in the 2009/2010 presidential election prompted traditional social democratic parties to shift leftward in an attempt to address emerging societal demands and reclaim power. This period ultimately set the stage for deeper political discontent in the following decade.

Keywords: Chile; Democratic Transition; Concertación; Sebastián Piñera; Political Stability; Government Legacy.

Abstract: This chapter examines Chile’s remarkable developmental trajectory and highlights achievements in economic growth, poverty reduction, and social indicators such as life expectancy and access to clean water. It does so considering that, despite these successes, widespread public dissatisfaction still erupted. It presents this as a paradox of progress that reveals that even a nation that can excel across any and all developmental metrics can still face profound discontent. Its main argument is that while inequality remains a relevant factor for explaining unrest, it was neither the sole nor the dominant driver. Instead, it proposes that inequality interacted with other critical dynamics that moderated its effects or complemented it as a source of frustration. Specifically, the chapter explores three alternative variables, namely, a pervasive sense of economic vulnerability, a perception of systemic inequality in institutional and societal treatment, and a frustration with perceived slowness and inequity in the delivery of the economic model’s benefits. It also proposes a reason as to why this unlikely version took precedence as a theoretical explanation. All together, this chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of the crisis, challenging the oversimplified narrative of inequality and reframing the discussion in a manner that is more consistent with retrospective evaluations.

Keywords: Chile; Latin America; Development Metrics; Economic Development; Neoliberalism; Elite Missdiagnosis.

Abstract: This chapter examines the political dynamics before the social unrest in Chile in 2019 by analyzing the evolution of the party system from a historical and longitudinal perspective. Focusing on the fifth political cycle, which began with the return to democracy in 1990, the chapter uses district-level election data and the effective number of parties (ENP) index to identify overlooked trends. The findings reveal three critical trends: (1) fragmentation within the party system began as early as 2009, which is well before what has previously been suggested, (2) a prominent leftward drift emerged as new parties sought to address the increasing demands for change, and (3) the system evolved asymmetrically with fragmentation concentrating on the left and polarization deepening on the right. These shifts weakened the ability of the party system to maintain stability, amplifying vulnerabilities in governance. Incremental reforms further intensified fragmentation, which enabled abrupt changes in voter preferences and demands. By the mid-2010s, the party system had become too fractured to mediate societal tension, ultimately steering Chile toward the profound crisis of 2019. This analysis highlights the extensive influence of institutional changes on political stability and underscores the challenges of adapting democratic systems during periods of increased political diversity and polarization.

Keywords: Chile; Party System Fragmentation; Electoral Reform; Ideological Maps; Institutionalist Theory; Multiparty Democracy.

Abstract: This chapter examines the erosion of voter–party linkages in Chile and its profound implications for the stability of the country’s democracy. By focusing on voter perception, engagement, and trust, it shifts the lens from parties to the electorate. The analysis underscores how declining voter turnout, collapsing trust, and the rise of “ghost” parties and “zombie” party members reflected a widening gap between citizens and the political system. At the heart of the discussion is the argument that this growing disconnect, intensified by the introduction of voluntary voting in 2011, eroded the foundational links that had traditionally connected voters to political parties, thus weakening Chile’s democratic structures. While the proliferation of new political parties might suggest an expansion of pluralism, the chapter demonstrates that many of these parties were born of opportunistic leadership rather than genuine grassroots. This phenomenon, which the chapter terms “representation backsliding,” encapsulates the systematic breakdown of voter–party connections and the increasing fragility of trust in the democratic process. Ultimately, the chapter shows how this detachment, combined with institutional disconnection, fueled political instability, fostering an environment ripe for rupturist rhetoric.

Keywords: Chile; Voter Disengagement; Institutional Trust; Representation Backsliding; Political Alienation; Party Membership.

Abstract: This chapter examines the emergence of a rupturist discourse in Chilean politics between 2010 and 2018 and traces its origins through three interconnected developments. First, the internal divide within the Concertación coalition—between autoflagelantes (advocates for radical reforms) and autocomplacientes (supporters of gradualism)—fractured the coalition’s coherence and introduced alternative ideas. Second, the rise of a younger generation of leaders, shaped by the student protests in 2006 and 2011, introduced bold demands and a grassroots challenge to the status quo. Third, the second presidency of Michelle Bachelet embraced structural reforms in taxation, education, and electoral systems, which demonstrated the feasibility of transformative change. These forces converged against the background of the erosion of voter–party linkages and party system fragmentation, producing a fertile environment for systemic critique and rupturist narratives. By 2018, changes were noted in the boundaries of Chile’s political possibilities, thus setting a higher bar for future reforms and laying the groundwork for the dramatic events of 2019. This chapter argues that the interplay among ambition, generational leadership, and institutional reform catalyzed a new era of politics in Chile that was defined by the pursuit of bold, systemic, and unapologetic change.

Keywords: Chile; Anti-Establishment Politics; Structural Reforms; Generational Shifts; Progressive Discourse; Elite Replacement.

Abstract: This chapter examines the social outburst of October 18, 2019, sparked by a modest Metro fare hike in Santiago that escalated into a nationwide wave of protests blending peaceful mobilizations with destructive violence. Initially triggered by high school fare evasions, the unrest quickly evolved into a broader movement reflecting diverse grievances, including frustrations over the cost of living, inadequate public services, and the perceived detachment between political institutions from citizens. The protests symbolically and materially undermined state institutions, leaving the Piñera administration struggling to govern effectively. Without clear demands from protesters in the initial days, the government’s response—marked by curfews, military deployments, and contentious statements—only deepened public distrust. In this vacuum, the opposition, particularly the new left, reframed the protests as a call for systemic change, strategically aligning the movement with critiques of Chile’s neoliberal framework and the 1980 Constitution. Though constitutional reform was not an explicit demand of the protesters, this interpretation provided coherence to an otherwise fragmented mobilization and positioned the opposition as leaders of transformative change. The events of 2019 marked a rupture in Chile’s political trajectory and set the stage for a constitutional process that would last almost three years.

Keywords: Chile; Massive Mobilization; Citizen Protests; Collective Action; Social Outburst; Elite Framing.

Abstract: This chapter analyzes Chile’s constitutional process as a response to the social outburst, highlighting the tension between institutional efforts to contain unrest and political demands for systemic transformation. It examines two key milestones: the overwhelming approval of a new constitution in the October 2020 plebiscite, where nearly 80% of voters supported replacing the Pinochet-era framework, and the May 2021 Constitutional Convention elections, which upended Chile’s political order. Independents and anti-establishment forces, empowered by measures such as gender parity and reserved Indigenous seats, secured unprecedented representation, reflecting deep distrust in traditional parties. These developments marked a decisive rupture, as the electorate rejected establishment politics and reshaped power dynamics. The shift sidelined the political right, strengthened the left and nontraditional actors, and explored the depth of societal frustration and the fragmentation of political consensus. While the process offered hope for democratic renewal, it also introduced risks of instability, as untested leaders assumed central roles in shaping Chile’s political future. The chapter underscores this moment as a transformative break, illustrating the challenges and opportunities of consensus-building amid demands for profound reform.

Keywords: Chile; Peace Agreement; Political Realignment; Constitutional Process; Electoral Engineering; Minority Politics

Abstract: This chapter analyzes the intersection between the 2021 presidential election and the 2021–2022 constitutional process. It focuses on a decisive period that reshaped the political landscape of the nation. Gabriel Boric’s victory and his coalition, Apruebo Dignidad, mirrored a public rejection of the political establishment in favor of far-left, transformative ideals induced by the social outburst. Boric’s ascent, bolstered by a generational movement and victory over the Communist Party’s Daniel Jadue in the presidential primaries, embodied a combination of grassroots activism and radical ambition that resonated with a frustrated electorate. However, embracing this systemic overhaul posed significant risks. Rooted in divisive rhetoric and promises of sweeping change, Boric’s campaign sidelined the center-left and -right while raising expectations for reform to unsustainable levels. The constitutional process, which was characterized by both fragmentation and polarization, became further entangled with Boric’s victory, thus amplifying political uncertainty. While his ascension symbolized a rupture in post-transition stagnation, it exposed the costs of the pursuit of untested leadership and radical reform. Chile’s choice, while hopeful for renewal, fostered instability, deepened societal divisions, and highlighted the challenges of balancing transformation and governance.

Keywords: Chile; Gabriel Boric; Part System Dealignment; Electoral Realignment; Far-Left Politics; Political Leadership.

Abstract: This chapter examines Chile’s 2021–2022 Constitutional Convention, a historic effort to draft a new constitution in response to the social outburst in 2019. It recounts the inaugural day of the Convention and highlights its symbolic significance and the remarkable dominance of left-leaning and independent representatives. It explores how these groups leveraged their majority to design internal rules that streamlined the drafting process in their favor. The discussion then shifts to an analysis of member positions and coalition dynamics, thus exploring how ideological alignments shaped the drafting of the proposal. Subsequently, the chapter examines the content of the draft, which included ambitious provisions such as plurinational recognition, extended social and environmental rights, and participatory mechanisms. Although these elements resonated with progressive ideals, they alienated moderate voters and exacerbated polarization. The final section considers the failure of the proposal and focuses on overreach as the key factor that underlay its overwhelming rejection in the September 2022 plebiscite, in which it was opposed by 62% of voters. Through this lens, the chapter reveals the challenges of striking a balance between transformative aspirations and public consensus and offers insights into the risks of ideological dominance in a fragmented political landscape.

Keywords: Chile; Progressive Overreach; Plurinationality; Social Rights; Participatory Politics; Ideological Fragmentation; Constitutional Convention.

Abstract: The overwhelming rejection of the 2022 Constitutional proposal, with 62% voting against it, marked a transformative moment in the political trajectory of the nation. Initially supported by a strong mandate for reform, public sentiment shifted as the process revealed misalignment between the pragmatic priorities of the electorate and the ideological ambitions of the draft. A change in leadership and the shift from committee deliberations to plenary debates, which drew heightened public scrutiny and skepticism, worsened this disconnect. Perceptions of disorder, fueled by unconventional behavior of assembly members and amplified by media portrayal, further alienated voters. Contextual pressure, such as economic instability, increasing crime rates, and the lingering disillusionment stemming from the 2019 social unrest, compounded doubts. Meanwhile, the failure of the Boric administration to stabilize the process or address urgent concerns exacerbated mistrust. Apart from these factors, the adverse result reflected a misdiagnosis of an elite, which mistook the demand for a better quality of life for the eradication of neoliberalism and the wholesale replacement of the 1980 Constitution. The chapter concludes by underscoring the importance of managing trust and perception, aligning reform ambitions with public expectations, and balancing bold political goals with pragmatic governance when conducting reform.

Keywords: Chile; Referendums; Ideological Misalignment; Rational Choice; Institutional Distrust.

Abstract: The rejection of Chile’s 2022 constitutional proposal posed a precarious position for the Boric administration, which was forced to decide whether to abandon the reform process or attempt a second effort with substantially reduced political capital. Despite the magnitude of the defeat, the government viewed the continuation of constitutional reform as a political necessity and moral imperative and cited the enduring mandate from the 2020 plebiscite. This chapter explores the immediate fallout due to the rejection with a focus on the strategic recalibration of the administration and the complex negotiations that occurred between a weakened left and a newly emboldened right. Furthermore, it examines the structural changes implemented during the second constitutional process, including the exclusion of independents, a smaller assembly, and the introduction of expert committees, thus reflecting lessons learned from the failure of the first attempt. Finally, it analyzes the results of the 2023 Constitutional Council election, which marked a decisive victory for the right that reshaped the political landscape and signaled a shift in voter sentiment. The chapter underscores the influence of political pragmatism and compromise on Chile’s second constitutional attempt and presents broader insights into the challenges of rebuilding public trust, balancing ideological divides, and sustaining momentum for reform in polarized landscapes.

Keywords: Chile; Constitutional Reform; Polarization; Governance; Coalitions; Electoral Design.

Abstract: This chapter examines the period of political instability and governance failure in Chile that hit Chile as the constitutional process developed. It looks at the country’s rapid deterioration across several key areas—including rising crime, economic anxiety, and institutional distrust—and argues that it was neither unavoidable nor inevitable, but induced by the strategic choices of political actors. Opposition forces contributed to instability through repeated impeachments, the promotion of pension fund withdrawals, and a narrative that delegitimized security institutions amid a surge in violent crime. Once in office, the new administration failed to respond effectively to public concerns, maintaining an open-border migration policy during a period of mounting anxiety, downplaying the severity of the security crisis, and engaging in poorly executed symbolic gestures that further eroded confidence. Controversial decisions, including highly criticized pardons and public disputes with oversight institutions, reinforced perceptions of partisanship and incompetence. In the end, the overambitious pursuit of structural reform—carried out in a moment of institutional fragility and public mistrust—did not bring about renewal, but instead deepened disillusionment and triggered a broader political realignment, with enduring consequences far beyond the constitutional process.

Keywords: Chile; Governance; Boric Administration; Institutional Crisis; Security Crisis; Economic Crisis; Public Skepticism.

Abstract: This chapter analyzes the 2023 Constitutional Council as a disciplined and structured response to the failure of the first constitutional process. This iteration was initiated with a pre-drafted text by the Experts Committee and operated under strict procedural rules overseen by the Technical Admissions Committee. Led by conservative Beatriz Hevia and social democrat Aldo Valle, the council exhibited a centrist and pragmatic tone, a sharp departure from the first attempt, which was activist-driven and polarized. Despite internal divisions within the right between Partido Republicano and Vamos por Chile, the operation of the council was efficient: it achieved consensus on more than 80% of its votes and produced a moderate, coherent proposal. However, the process failed to engage a public that was increasingly preoccupied with the rising crime rate, economic hurdles, and immigration. Public indifference increased as voters perceived that the constitutional effort was detached from their immediate priorities, as evidenced by campaigns for approval or rejection that focused on closure instead of substance. The chapter preliminarily concludes that while the second process corrected procedural and organizational flaws, it was unable to overcome the lack of public trust or enthusiasm. The second rejection underscores that even well-executed attempts at reform may fail if they overlook the tangible needs and priorities of citizens.

Keywords: Chile; Legislative Discipline; Polarization; Public Disconnect; Party Elites

Abstract: This chapter examines the fate of Chile’s second constitutional proposal and argues that its rejection primarily stemmed from its failure to secure key societal rights, such as abortion, which led to uncertainty and alienated key segments of the electorate. Intended as a moderate alternative to the first draft, it was insufficiently pragmatic, which fostered ambiguity on critical issues that left it vulnerable to political attacks. Apart from substantive flaws, constitutional fatigue and shifting political context also played crucial roles. After four years of debates, unfulfilled promises, and worsening economic and social crises, many Chileans disengaged from the process. Compared with the first plebiscite, in which rejection was framed as an opportunity to draft a better alternative, the second referendum forced voters to opt between adopting a flawed document or finally ending the constitutional process. Many were weary of the prolonged uncertainty and opted for the latter. The chapter argues that both constitutional failures originated from a misdiagnosis of the needs of Chileans—pragmatic reforms and not ideological restructuring. It concludes that a minimalist constitution, one that would have preserved existing rights while addressing structural flaws, may have succeeded where both proposals failed.

Keywords: Chile; Abortion; Constitutional Reform Failure; Electoral Apathy; Ideological Rigidity; Public Trust Erosion; Constitutional Process.

Abstract: This chapter looks back on four years of upheaval in Chile. It summarizes some of the main findings in this book and seeks to provide an account for the crisis through two central questions: how could a country once praised for its stability and institutional strength descend into mass unrest, and if constitutional change was the solution, how can the rejection of two proposed texts be understood? The first part traces the slow erosion of Chile’s political system—fragmented parties, weakened voter linkages, and declining trust—which left institutions too brittle to manage mounting social demands. Contextual shifts, including generational turnover and the rise of rupturist discourse, intensified these vulnerabilities and transformed discontent into a call for foundational change. The second part analyzes how the failure of both constitutional conventions revealed a deeper problem: not just flawed proposals, but a crisis of legitimacy. The first draft overreached; the second came too late. In both cases, the system lacked the credibility to mediate reform. The chapter argues that Chile’s problem was not resistance to change, but the collapse of the institutional capacity to deliver it. What began as a moment of renewal ended in exhaustion—leaving the same constitution in place, and the public more disillusioned than before.

Keywords: Chile; Structural Grievances; Reform Ideology; Party System; Leadership Challenges; Polarized Society.

Abstract: . This chapter reflects on Chile’s constitutional process as a paradox of continuity and transformation. Despite two failed efforts to replace the 1980 Constitution, the process resulted in subtle but meaningful shifts. The foundational text remained, but the amendment thresholds were lowered, rendering institutional reform more accessible and reducing the urgency of full-scale replacement. Socially, the journey reshaped public attitudes toward change: what began as a collective demand for transformation ended in a renewed appreciation for political stability, institutional continuity, and economic efficiency. The failure of both drafts revealed that change does not naturally equate to progress, and that reform pursued under unstable conditions carries risks that can outweigh any and all possible benefits. Chile’s experience suggests that a successful constitutional overhaul requires not only broad consensus and institutional cohesion but also the ability to manage uncertainty. While Chile did not replace its constitution, it emerged with a more flexible framework, a more cautious electorate, and a reaffirmed economic foundation. Of course, this did not come without costs. In any case, its transformation offers a lesson to others: that the pursuit of change must be tempered by the understanding that overhaul is difficult, that success is never guaranteed, and that things can, in fact, get worse.

Keywords: Chile; Gradualism; Institution-Building; Democratic Stability; Governance; Constitutional Reform; Theseus Paradox.